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Negative (Anode) & Positive (Cathode) Electrode Materials for Lithium Batteries
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Tables 1786a and 1786b list negative (anode) and positive (cathode) electrode materials for disposable (primary) lithium batteries, rechargeable (secondary) lithium ion batteries, and rechargeable lithium titanate batteries. These materials are normally applied to all the types of lithium batteries if they are not specially noted. In general, disposable lithium batteries have lithium metal or lithium compounds as the negative electrodes. Rechargeable lithium ion batteries use intercalated lithium compounds as the electrode materials. Lithium titanate batteries are modified lithium-ion batteries that employ lithium titanate nanocrystals on the surfaces on the negative electrodes. The essential requirements for negative electrode materials are that the materials should have small volume expansion and stress during charging/discharging process, high electronic conductivity, low irreversible capacity loss during the first charging cycle or intercalation process, stable under wide operating temperatures in a highly reducing environment, and low specific surface area for optimal performance and safety. |
Table 1786a. Negative (anode) electrode materials for lithium batteries (assuming the host material is lithium-free).
| Negative electrode material | Molecular weight | Density (g·cm-3) | Gravimetric capacity (mAh•g-l) | Volumetric capacity (mAh•cm-3) | Applications | Remarks | Advantages | Disadvantages | Reference/Main manufacturer |
| Carbon (primarily natural or man-made graphite) | 372 | The dominant anode material used in lithium ion batteries. | Commercialized | Long cycle life, abundant, low cost and good energy density. | Relatively low energy density; inefficiencies due to solid electrolyte interface formation | ||||
| Hard Carbon | Consumer electronics | Great storage capacity | Energ2 | ||||||
| Li (lithium) | 6.94 | 0.53 | 3862 | 2047 | Disposable | ||||
| LiC6 (graphite) | 79.00 | 2.24 | 339 | 759 | |||||
| LiAl | 33.92 | 1.75 | 790 | 1383 | |||||
| Li21Sn5 | 739 | 2.55 | 761 | 1941 | |||||
| LiWO2 | 222.79 | 11.3 | 120 | 1356 | |||||
| LiMoO2 | 134.9 | 6.06 | 199 | 1206 | |||||
| Li2TiO3 (lithium titanate) | |||||||||
| Li4Ti5O12(lithium titanate, LTO) | 175 | Automotive, electrical grid, bus, operating temperature −50–70 °C |
Commercialized | "Zero strain" material, good cycling & efficiencies | High voltage, low capacity (low energy density) | Toshiba, Altairnano |
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| LiTiS2 | 118.94 | 3.06 | 225 | 689 | |||||
| Silicon/Carbon | 580 | Smartphones, providing 1850 mA·h capacity |
Amprius | ||||||
| Tin-based oxides/C composite | [1] | ||||||||
| Tin/cobalt alloy |
Consumer electronics (Sony Nexelion battery) | Larger capacity than a cell with graphite (3.5 Ah 18650-type battery) | Sony | ||||||
| TiO2 Nanoribbons | [2] |
Table 1786b. Positive (cathode) electrode materials (lithium metal oxide powders) for lithium batteries.
| Positive electrode material | Crystal structure | Space group | Specific capacity (mAh•g-l) | Cycle performance | Energy density (Wh/kg) |
Preparation | Applications | Remarks | Advantages | Disadvantages | Main manufacturer | Reference |
| FeF2/C | High electrode capacity due to two or more electrons transfer | [5, 6] | ||||||||||
| FeOF/C nanocomposites | [4 - 6] | |||||||||||
| NCA (Nickel / Cobalt / Alum) | 160 | JCI/Saft, PEVE, AESC | ||||||||||
| Li2Mn2O4 | Twice the energy density of LiMn2O4 | |||||||||||
| LiMn2O4 (lithium manganese oxide) | 100–120 | Unstable | Low, 150 | Easy and cheap | Hybrid electric vehicle, cell phone, laptop |
Commercialized | Low cost, abundance of Mn, high voltage, moderate safety, good durability, excellent rate performance | Limited cycle life, low capacity | NEC, Hitachi, Nissan/AESC, EnerDel, Hitachi, AESC, Sanyo, GS Yuasa, LG Chem, Samsung, Toshiba, Enerl, SK Corp, Altairnano |
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| Li 2Mn2O4 | Tetragonal | |||||||||||
| LiCoO2 (lithium cobalt oxide) | 140 | Good | Simple | Most commonly used, commercialized | Cost & resource limitations of Co, low capacity | [3] | ||||||
| LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 | ||||||||||||
| LiNiO2 (lithium nickel oxide) | Unstable | Difficult | Not widely used | |||||||||
| Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide ("NMC", LiNixMnyCozO2) |
Density, output, safety | Imara Corporation, Nissan Motor, Microvast Inc | ||||||||||
| LiNiMnCoO2 | 150 | Conventionally used | PEVE, Hitachi, Sanyo, LG Chem, Samsung, Enerl, Evonik, GS Yuasa | |||||||||
| LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 | 180–200 | Commercialized | High capacity & voltage, excellent rate performance | Safety, cost & resource limitations of Ni and Co | ||||||||
| LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 | 160–170 | Commercialized | High voltage, moderate safety | Cost & resource limitations of Ni and Co | ||||||||
| Oxygen ("Li-Air") | Automotive | Energy density: up to 10,000 mA·h per gram of positive electrode material. Rechargeable. |
IBM, Polyplus | |||||||||
| LiFePO4 (lithium iron phosphate) | Orthorhombic | Pbnm | 170 | 140 | Segway Personal Transporter, power tools, aviation products, automotive hybrid systems, PHEV conversions |
Commercialized | Excellent safety, cycling, & rate capability, low cost & abundance of Fe, low toxicity, moderate density (2 A·h
outputs 70 amperes) operating temperature >60 °C |
Low voltage & capacity, low energy density | A123, BYD, GS Yuasa, JCI/Saft, Valence, Lishen, University of Texas/ Hydro-Québec, Phostech Lithium Inc., Valence Technology, A123Systems/MIT |
| [1] J. Fan, T. Wang, C. Yu, B. Tu, Z. Jiang, D. Zhao, Ordered, Nanostructured Tin-Based Oxides/Carbon Composite as the Negative-Electrode Material for Lithium-Ion Batteries, 16 (16), 1432–1436 (2004). [2] Thomas Beuvier, Mireille Richard-Plouet, Maryline Mancini-Le Granvalet, Thierry Brousse, Olivier Crosnier, and Luc Brohan, TiO2(B) Nanoribbons As Negative Electrode Material for Lithium Ion Batteries with High Rate Performance, Inorg. Chem., 2010, 49 (18), 8457–8464. [3] Mizushima, K.; Jones, P. C.; Wiseman, P. J.; Goodenough, J. B., Mater. Res. Bull., 1980, 15, 783. [4] F. Cosandey, Analysis of Li-Ion Battery Materials by Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy, Microscopy: Science, Technology, Applications and Education, A. Méndez-Vilas and J. Díaz (Eds.), 1662, (2010). [5] Badway F, Cosandey F, Pereira N, Amatucci GG, Carbon metal fluoride nanocoposites; High-capacity reversible metal fluoride converssion materials as rechargeable positive electrodes for Li batteries, J. of the Electrochemical Society, 2003; 150 (10): A1318-1327. [6] Amatucci GG, Pereira N, Fluoride based electrode materials for advanced energy storage devices, J. Of Fluorine Chemistry, 2007; 128; 243-262. |
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