Practical Electron Microscopy and Database

An Online Book, Second Edition by Dr. Yougui Liao (2006)

Table of Contents/Index

Chapter/Index: Introduction | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | Appendix

Xenon
XeF₂			Xenon ion sputtering yield in milling
X-ray and its generation
Possible electron transitions giving rise to characteristic X-rays			Maximum escape depth of X-rays
X-ray atomic scattering factors			Shape of X-ray peak in EDS measurements
X-ray optics			Consideration of X-radiation protection in EM design
Bremsstrahlung X-rays			Characteristic X-rays & their peaks
Characteristic X-rays energies of some elements			Electron Relaxation and X-Ray
Peak position shift in EDS			Energy peak overlapping in EDS spectrum
Elements with possible X-ray interferences in EDS			Characteristic X-ray energy versus critical ionization energy
Wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDXRF/WDS)			Escape depth of X-rays
Dependence of X-ray generation on atomic number			Wavelength (energy) of X-ray "particles" (photons)
Electron probe X-ray microanalyzer (EPMA)			Initial and final levels for characteristic X-ray lines
X-ray applications			Channelling/diffraction enhanced X-ray emission in EDS measurements
Mean free path of X-rays			Hard X-rays
Film thickness determination by X-ray reflectivity/interference			Soft X-rays
Wavelength of lights			X-ray emission by electron irradiation
X-ray emission lines of all elements in periodic table			Interaction volumes for generation of characteristic X-rays
X-ray fluorescence yield/weight			X-ray emission from multiple layers depending on accelerating voltages of electrons
Interaction of X-ray with materials
X-ray techniques comparing with other techniques
Comparison between EDS and WDS			Comparison between XAS and EELS
Comparison between X-rays and energetic moving electrons			Comparison between X-ray (XRD) and electron diffractions
Comparison between EDS and AES			Comparison between EDS and EELS
Comparison of EDS measurements with low- & high-energy incident electrons			X-ray detectors & EDS comparison in SEM/TEM/STEM
X-rays: Background in EDS map and profile & it corrections/subtraction
Physical modeling of EDS background			Signal to noise ratio of EDS
X-ray peak to background ratio in EDS			Signal/noise filtering for EDS background calculation
EDS background noise & modulation and their effects on analysis			Intensity of bremsstrahlung X-rays: Kramers' law
Reduction of EDS background			Background shelf in EDS measurements
X-rays: Artifacts/spurious x-rays in EDS measurements
Absorption of outgoing X-ray in EDS measurements			Secondary X-ray (fluorescence) in EDS measurements
X-ray emission from multiple layers depending on accelerating voltages of electrons			Noise peaks in EDS measurement
Stray radiation in EMs			Escape peak in EDS/X-ray profiles
Sum peaks/coincidence peaks in x-ray/EDS profiles			Pile-up continuum in x-ray/EDS profiles
X-rays generated by backscattered electrons			Energy peak overlapping in EDS spectrum
Thickness-induced EDS artifacts			Ratio of EDS peak intensities of two elements
Incomplete charge collection in EDS measurements			Channelling enhanced X-ray emission
Broadening of EDS peaks			Distortion/asymmetry of X-ray peak from Gaussian shape in EDS
Periodic table of X-ray absorption edges			EDS background noise & modulation and their effects on analysis
X-rays generated by backscattered electrons			Background shelf in EDS measurements
X-ray absorption by materials and EDS detection limit of low energy X-rays
X-ray absorption energy			X-ray absorption induced by carbon contamination
Near Edge X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (NEXAFS)			X-Ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES)
Extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS)			X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS)
Beer’s law for EDS measurement			Mass absorption coefficients of X-rays
Low voltage energy dispersive spectroscopy (LVEDS) or low-energy X-ray emission spectroscopy (LEXES)
X-ray bolometer
Comparison of various X-ray spectrometers
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
Kinematically diffracted electron and X-ray beams & their intensities			Artifacts and drawbacks of XRD technique
Preferred orientation on X-ray diffraction patterns			Kossel lines in x-ray diffraction
Comparison between X-ray (XRD) and electron diffractions			Full width at half maximum (FWHM) of X-ray diffraction lines
XRD patterns of amorphous materials			XRD analysis of particles and nanostructures
X-ray lines used in XRD analysis			Peak splitting in XRD profiles
Reflection numbers in XRD profiles			Phase identification with XRD and its procedure
Synchrotron X-ray Diffraction			Evaluation of grain size by XRD technique
JCPDS card for XRD analysis			Comparison between conventional and synchrotron X-ray Diffraction
Comparison between single crystal and powder X-ray diffractions
X-ray emission families
K-family (K_α & K_β) X-ray emission			L-family of characteristic X-ray emission
M-family of characteristic X-ray emission
X-ray: Introduction of EDS (energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy)
Advantage and Disadvantage of EDS			EDS principle
Dependence of EDS on accelerating voltages of incident electrons			Ratio of EDS peaks of the same elements
Applications of EDS technique			Possible electron transitions giving rise to characteristic X-rays
Take-off angle (TOA) in EDS system			Sensitivity/detection limit/minimum detectable mass of EDS
EDS-TEM specimen holders			Elemental loss in EM specimen detected by EDS
Secondary X-Ray (Fluorescence) in EDS Measurements			Objective lens versus EDS and EELS
Elemental characterization in physical analysis of IC failure
Limits of EDS measurements
Sensitivity/detection limit/minimum detectable mass of EDS			Accuracy of EDS quantification
EDS measurements of minor and/or trace elements
X-ray: EDS (energy dispersive X-ray) detectors/systems
Solid state detectors (SSDs)			Lithium-drifted silicon diodes & Si(Li) EDS detectors
Ratio of EDS peak intensities of two elements			Position of EDS detector in EMs
Field Effect Transistor (FET) preamplifier in EDS systems			Collection efficiency of EDS measurements/detectors
Size of EDS detector in EMs			Distance effect on solid angle of EDS detector
Collection angle/solid angle of EDS detector			Silicon drift EDS detectors (SDD)
Collimator in EDS detectors in EMs			Peak-detector/peak-stretcher in EDS systems
Spectroscopic amplifier in EDS system			Development history of X-ray analysis for EMs
Maintenance of EDS system			Damage of EDS detectors
Top-entry type EDS detector			EDS signal affected by secondary and backscattered electrons
Evaluation of EDS detectors			Dead layers in EDS detectors
Energy resolution of EDS			X-ray acquisition processing
Reliability/reproducibility of EDS data & EDS system			Angular/polar distribution of X-ray generation in electron microscopy
X-ray: Operation/measurements of EDS
Considerations of operating conditions of EDS analytical microscopy			EDS energy calibration
EDS acquisition time			EDS artifacts induced by beam damage
Detection of high energy X-rays in EDS			Critical sample thickness for EDS measurement
Dead time in EDS measurement			Maximizing EDS intensity/counts
Live time in EDS measurements			Clock time in EDS measurements
EDS measurements in aberration corrected TEMs			Chemical shift detection of elements by EDS
Widths of X-ray peaks in EDS measurement			“Hole Count” in X-ray measurements
Simultaneous EELS and EDS acquisition			Time constant/peaking time/shaping time of EDS amplifier
Software for EDS spectrum acquisition and analysis			NSS EDS software
Comparison of data acquisition times of various techniques			Optimization of EDS measurements
Common factors affecting contrast/intensity of EELS & EDS
Overvoltage Ratio in EDS Measurements
X-ray intensity affected by overvoltage			Spatial resolution dependence on overvoltages
X-ray: EDS data analysis
Broadening of EDS peaks			Thin-foil criterion (thin-film approximation) in EDS measurement
Automatic qualitative EDS analysis			Deconvolution in EDS analysis
EDS analysis of light elements			Correct and incorrect peak identification in EDS measurements
Improvement/optimization of EDS analysis accuracy
Factors affecting EDS intensity
Mass-thickness effects on EDS signal/intensity			Theoretical intensity of characteristic X-rays
X-ray intensity affected by overvoltage			Common factors affecting contrast/intensity of EELS & EDS
Maximizing EDS intensity/counts			Ratio of EDS peak intensities of two elements
Intensity of bremsstrahlung X-rays: Kramers' law			Detailed energy & intensity (weight/yield) of K, L, & M lines for all elements
EDS quantification of elements & quantification modes
EDS quantification with k-factors (Cliff-Lorimer factors)			EDS ZAF quantification mode & Matrix correction
EDS PhiRhoZ (Phi-Rho-Z) quantification mode
EDS quantification
Standardless EDS quantification			Quantitative EDS analysis with standards (calibrated)
			Mass-thickness effects on EDS signal/intensity
Ratio technique for elemental quantification by EDS			Accuracy of EDS quantification
EDS quantification of light elements			3D effect and relevant correction in EDS quantification
EDS quantification of heavy elements			Low-energy X-rays and elemental quantification
Linear least squares fitting technique			Multiple linear least-squares (MLLS) peak fitting for EDS analysis
Digital-filtered least-squares peak fitting for EDS quantification			Count rate in EDS measurements
k-factor in EDS quantification
Cliff-Lorimer sensitivity factors/k-factors in EDS/x-rays			EDS quantification with k-factors (Cliff-Lorimer factors)
k-factor determination and EDS calibration			k factor depending on operating voltage
EDS k-factor affacted by probe size			k-factor/ZAF correction due to sample thickness effect ('thin-film' criterion)
X-ray: Windows of EDS detectors
Ultrathin window (UTW) on EDS detector			Beryllium `window' EDS detector
`Windowless' EDS detector			Atmospheric thin window (ATW) detector
X-ray absorption in detector windows
X-ray: Spatial resolution in EDS technique
Spatial resolution of EDS on light element matrices			Spatial resolution dependence on X-ray lines
Spatial resolution dependence on overvoltages			Spatial resolution of SEM
EDS spatial resolution depending on EM sample thickness			Effect of beam spreading on EDS spatial resolution
Degradation of EDS spatial resolution due to specimen contamination			Spatial resolution in EDS technique
Degradation of EDS spatial resolution due to specimen drift
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
Comparison between XPS and various SIMS