Practical Electron Microscopy and Database

An Online Book, Second Edition by Dr. Yougui Liao (2006)

Table of Contents/Index

Chapter/Index: Introduction | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | Appendix

d shell electrons
Outer d shell electrons
d-spacings/real crystal spacings & d-Ratio
d-spacing ratios of allowed Bragg reflections for some space groups
D-SUB 44 connector
I. Damage Overview: Damage of materials due to electron irradiation in EMs
Damage cross section of atoms from electron irradiation		Dependence of radiation damage on accelerating voltage of electrons
Sample damage in TEM measurements		Electron beam damage depending on TEM/SEM specimen thickness
Atom loss during EM measurements		Cross section for bulk and surface diffusion induced by electron irradiation
Cross-sections of atom displacement due to electron irradiation in bulk		Displacement damage
Preferential electron-beam etching of grain boundaries
II. Damage: Removal of atoms (knock-on/sputtering) due to electron irradiation in EMs
Sputtering/knock-on of atoms from beam-exit surface of TEM sample		Cross-sections of surface sputtering/knock-on induced by electron irradiation
III. Damage: Ionization damage in EMs
IV. Damage induced artifacts
EDS artifacts induced by beam damage		Elemental loss in EM specimen detected by EDS
V. Damage solutions & monitoring
Electron beam damage monitored by EELS		Low e-beam current density to minimize specimen damage in EELS measurements
Step size used for beam damage reduction during elemental mapping		EM improvements for reducing beam damage
Coating of TEM specimen to reduce beam damage & sputtering
VI. Damage: Others
Problems/damage of apertures		Damage of TEM specimen holder
Damage of EDS detectors		Ion-beam induced structural change/damage at surfaces in FIB
Damping envelope in TEM imaging
Temporal-coherence envelope function		TEM/STEM characteristics affected by CTF damping
Dangling-bonds
Dangling-bonds in grain boundaries
Dark current noise
Comparison between BF (bright field), ADF (annular dark field) and HAADF (high angle annular dark field) STEM images
Dark current and its removal in EELS and EFTEM
Dark-field (DF) imagings
Dark-field (DF) imaging in TEM		Beam tilt with dark-field deflection coils
Annular dark-field (ADF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM)		ADF-TEM (annular dark-field transmission electron microscopy) aperture

Data acquisition and analysis using PC in EMs		Data acquisition times of various techniques
de Broglie wave equation		Dead time in EDS measurement
Dead layers in EDS detectors		Debye phonon model
Debye-Scherrer rings in electron diffraction patterns	Decagonal quasicrystal
Decay probability from initial state to final state		De-excitation process of electrons
Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) of detectors in EM		Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) of detectors in EM
Direct electron detectors (DED) / Direct Detection Devices (DDD)		Examples of direct electron detectors (e.g. Gatan K2, DE-20, Falcon II)
CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) direct electron detectors		Hybrid Pixel Array Detector (PAD): A direct electron detector
CCD sensors/detectors with phosphor and fiber-optic coupling

Deconvolution
TEM image processing and deconvolution		Deconvolution in EELS
Fourier–log deconvolution in EELS		Fourier-ratio method for EELS deconvolution
Deconvolution for noise reduction in EEL spectra
Dependence of single and multiple inelastical scatterings of electrons on TEM sample thickness		Richardson-Lucy deconvolution
Maximum-entropy deconvolution		Deconvolution in EDS analysis

Dedicated STEM (DSTEM) systems		Defect: Lens defects

Deep level states in band gap analyzed by EELS
Defects in materials
TEM analysis of defects in amorphous materials		Defect analysis by TEM/STEM
Interfacial defects		Point defects
Defects in metallic glasses		Bulk defects
Defects in crystals
Line defects		Dark patches
Dissociation		Defects in crystalline materials in LEDs
Generation of defects in crystals		Anisotropy of thermal expansion coefficients due to defects
Theoretical interpretation of STEM/TEM images about crystalline defects		Determination of Burgers vector of lattice defects
Generation of defects in crystals depending on cooling rates		{113} or {311} defects
Defects in crystals formed by ion-implantation and annealing		Analysis of crystal deformation/distortion

Deficiency lines in zero-order disc in CBED patterns		Deflection angle in electron holography
Double arrow annotation on Gatan DigitalMicrograph
Deflector/double-deflection system in EMs
Electron-beam deflecting/scanning coil control system		Double deflection scan coils in STEMs
Shutter used in EELS and EFTEM measurements		Beam blanking with an electrostatic deflector in EMs and FIB
Defocus/defocus (aberration) in EMs: General
Defocus spread/fluctuation in EMs		Focusing/defocusing action in EMs
Focusing action of lens		Defocus induced by chromatic aberration/energy deviation in electrons
Standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution of defocus due to the chromatic aberration
Defocus/defocus: Defocus/focus in TEM imaging
Scherzer defocus		Gabor defocus
Lichte’s defocus		In-focus in TEM imaging
Focusing sensitivity in TEM imaging		Standard focus/Eucentric height versus sample tilt in TEM
Wavefunction in defocusing plane in TEM imaging		Defocus affecting Fresnel fringes in TEM images
Phase shift from defocus and spherical aberration		Aberration coefficients determined by defocus-based techniques
Minimum (phase-)contrast in (HR)TEM imaging with Gaussian defocus		Maximum (phase-)contrast in (HR)TEM imaging (with Scherzer defocus)
Best/optimum defocus condition for HRTEM imaging
Defocus/underfocus and its TEM contrast
Defocus series in TEM imaging		TEM defocusing imaging of interfaces
Defocus/defocus: Diffraction
Focus of electron diffraction in TEM
Defocus/defocus: STEM
Defocused convergent incident electron beam		HRSTEM image contrast as function of defocus
Defocus series in STEM imaging		Sensitivity of STEM contrast to focus
Sensitivity of CTF to defocus of objective lens
Defocus/defocus: EFTEM/EELS
Spectrum focus adjustment in EFTEM		Dependence of defocus on EELS and quantitative analysis
Effects of defocus on EELS

DeGauss function in EMs		Delay: RC time delays in ICs
Delocalization
Contrast delocalization/blurring effect in TEM images		SEM resolution affected by delocalization of inelastic scattering
Delocalization of EELS measurements		Delocalization in inelastic scattering
Image localization in STEM		Delocalized states in materials

Delta-type aberration correctors		Demonstrations by EM manufacturers
Dendrites
Nano-dendrites and their formation
Densities in materials
(Atomic) density of different materials		Packing density in some crystal planes
Areal density of atoms measured by EELS intensity
EELS intensity depending on areal density of atoms		Density of valence electrons of materials
TEM contrast/fringes at interface between two materials
Density of states (DOS)
Partial density of states (PDOS)		Density-functional theory (DFT)
Density-functional theory (DFT) simulations of EELS profiles		Joint density of states (JDOS)

Diffraction aperture, field limiting aperture, selected area diffraction aperture	Deformation (plastic)
Demagnification in EMs		Desktop/portable/tabletop SEM
Descan of electron beam in (S)TEM		Desktop computers
Detective quantum efficiency (DQE) in EELS and imaging system
Deposition
FIB (ion beam) induced deposition (IBID)		Charging enhanced electron/ion-beam-induced-deposition
Material growth on convex surfaces		Gallium contamination due to FIB milling & in FIB deposits
Laser beam direct writing (LBW)		FIB Precursor Gas Chemistries for Ion-beam/FIB/Electron-beam Induced Etching and Deposition Processes
Deposition: Electron beam-induced deposition (EBID)
Amorphization of materials induced by e-beam Pt deposition
Depth
Depth of field in EM		Depth of focus in EM
Depth sensitivity & spatial resolution of EBSD		Depth sensitivity of REELS & Dependence of depth on primary electron beam energy/incident angle/collection angle
Penetration depth of a laser into materials
Penetration depth/implant depth/trajectory of ions in FIB milling
Destructive: Visual inspection for destructive and/or nondestructive analysis of IC chips		Detector envelope function for EM imaging
Detectors
Detectors for SEM		Secondary electron detecting/amplifying system in EMs
Contribution of transfer properties of detector to diffractograms		EBSD detector
HAADF detectors
Determination of unknown crystal structures and space groups
CBED pattern symmetries for crystal determination		Phase identification procedure by CBED
Indexing CBED patterns		Existing of extinction bands within forbiddden reflections in CBED patterns
Determination of crystal structures using electron diffraction technique		Determination of crystal structures using HRTEM technique
Departure from Friedel’s law in CBED patterns

Deviation parameter/excitation error of Bragg reflections
Dew Point		Diameter of electron beam
Dielectric materials
High-k dielectric materials		Static or low-frequency dielectric constant
Bandgap energies of dielectrics		Dielectric constant of ferroelectric crystals
Ferroelectric dielectric hysteresis & hysteresis loop		Linear lossless dielectrics
Linear lossy dielectrics		Non-linear lossless dielectrics
Non-linear lossy dielectrics

Dielectric response/function of material valence electrons		Dielectric-constant determination by EELS
Diamond
Extinctions and weak spots showing in electron diffraction patterns of diamond		Diffraction comparison between different cubic crystal structures
Solid solubility of various impurities in carbon/diamond		Diamond structure

Differential correlation function
Differential cross section of total (elastic & inelastic) electron scattering
Cross section: Inelastic differential (introduction & theory)
Diffraction
Diffraction of plane wave from multiple point sources		X-ray diffraction
Electron diffraction in TEM		Fraunhofer diffraction
k-means clustering for sorting electron diffraction patterns
Intermediate/diffraction lens		Automatically indexing TEM electron diffraction patterns using machine learning
Diffraction-induced artifacts in measurements
Channelling/diffraction enhanced X-ray emission in EDS measurements
Four-dimensional (4D) STEM-diffraction
Diffuse diffraction streaks in electron diffraction from columnar substructures		Incoherent thermal diffuse scattering (TDS) electrons in (S)TEM
Diffuse scattering in electron diffraction due to crystalline disorder		Diffused and polysilicon resistors
Diffusion of atoms in materials
Diffusionless phase transformation		Activation energy of diffusion
Vacancy detection by elemental diffusion
Diffusion coefficients
Diffusion coefficients of elements in various materials		Diffusion/penetration/diffusivity of elements through grain boundaries
Diffusion/diffusivity of elements through single crystals		Diffusion/diffusivity of elements through surfaces
Diffusion pump
Differential pumping aperture (DPA) in EMs		Silicon oils from diffusion pump
DigiScan
Set flyback time in DigiScan image to avoid image distortion		Gatan FireWire adapter (GFA) (DigiScan/Compliant/Legacy ) software/hardware
Digital
Digital electro-optical imaging sensor		Digital holography
Digital imaging camera		Gatan Digital Micrograph
Rewritable digital versatile disks		Digital-filtered least-squares peak fitting for EDS quantification
Line Width Roughness (LWR) and LER (Line Edge Roughness) in CD (Critical Dimension) Measurements
Dimension/size		Dimethylacetamide (DMAc)
Dimers
Energy level diagrams for single atoms, dimers, clusters & bulk materials
Diodes
Semiconducting light-emitting diodes (LEDs)		Semiconducting laser diodes (LDs)

Dipole design for C_s corrector in EMs		Dipole transitions in electron excitations
Direct
Interference between direct and diffracted beams in TEM		Direct bandgap
Direct methods		Direct interband transition

Direction of spontaneous polarization in ferroelectrics
Directions in lattice system of crystals
Angle between directions		Close packed planes and directions in crystals

Director/manager of electron microscope labs		Disadvantages
Drawback/disadvantage of STEM imaging
Discharging and charging in electron guns		Discrete/continuous/fast Fourier transform (DFT/CFT/FFT)
Designs
Consideration of X-radiation protection in EM design

Disk size/radius in CBED
Dislocations in crystals
Sense vector		Vector description of crystal dislocations
Visibility/contrast of dislocations and stacking faults in TEM and EMs		Frank’s rule in dislocation theory
Dislocation node		SiGe/Si system and its defects
Misfit dislocation: Lattice mismatch versus misfit dislocation separation		Extra energy introduced by dislocations
Dislocation density		Dislocation detection by CBED and LACBED
Ostwald ripening/coarsening of dislocation loops		Perfect dislocations
Widths of dislocations		Determination of Burgers vectors of dislocations
Dislocation cores		Screw dislocations versus edge dislocations
Threading dislocation (TD)		Dislocation formation during TEM observation
g·b analysis (visibility criterion) for analysis of Burgers vector and dislocations		Application of g·b Analysis (Visibility Criterion: Dot product of the diffraction vector g and the Burgers vector b)
Dislocations: Burgers vector
Determination of Burgers vectors of dislocations		Burgers circuit
Burgers vectors of dislocations (Tables)
Dislocations: Edge dislocations
Dislocation loops
Clustering of vacancies into dislocation loops		Glide and dislocation loops
Dislocations: Mixed dislocations
Motion and slip of mixed dislocation
Dislocations: screw dislocation
Screw dislocation formation due to shear stress		Types of screw dislocations
Disorder
Bonding disorder in materials		Diffuse scattering in electron diffraction due to crystalline disorder
Displacements
Electron-beam-tilt-induced image displacement in TEM		Atomic displacement parameter/factor & mean-square atomic displacement
Displacement of atoms due to electron irradiation in EMs
Displacement energy for bulk and surface diffusion induced by electron irradiation		Elemental (atomic) displacement threshold due to electron irradiation in bulk
Displacement energy for surface sputtering/knock-on induced by electron irradiation		Elemental (atomic) displacement threshold of chemical elements due to electron irradiation at sample surface
Cross-sections of atom displacement due to electron irradiation in bulk		Elemental (atomic) displacement threshold due to electron irradiation
Energy transfer for atomic displacement/knock-on process due to electron irradiation		Displacement energy for atoms in bulk and at sample surface due to electron irradiation
Displacive ferroelectrics
Distance between two electrons in electron beam in EMs		Working distance in SEM and its effects on image contrast
Distortions
Projector lenses and image distortion in EMs		Image distortion correction in FETEM
Set flyback time in DigiScan image to avoid image distortion		Correction of electron beam distortion in EMs
Artifacts in off-axis electron holograms: distortions		Distortion/asymmetry of X-ray peak from Gaussian shape in EDS
Distribution of secondary electrons in SEM
Angular distribution

Divergent lenses		Dodecagonal quasicrystal
Dodecapole/hexapole/double-hexapole/sextupole design for C_s corrector in EMs
Domain in ferroelectric materials
Angle between polarization vectors of adjacent domains in various crystalline phases in ferroelectrics
Dopant
Techniques for dopant profiling in semiconductors		SEM contrast dependence on dopants in semiconductors
Measurement of electric field/dopant/p-n junction using off-axis electron holography		Dependence of dopant contrast in Si on accelerating voltage of primary electron in SEM
Dopant-selective etching/staining in IC analysis		Dopant deactivation induced by FIB sample preparation
Change of lattice parameter due to doping
Dose
Electron dose of electron beam		Measurement of probe current
Electron dose inducing material damage in bulk and at sample surface		Ion irradiation dose
Minimum electron dose for sufficient EELS counts		Low dose TEM/STEM imaging

Double cross-sections for examination of damage of prepared EM sample surface		Double deflection scan coils in STEMs
Double perovskite crystalline structures
Drifts
EELS spectrum energy (and zero-loss) drift		Electron beam drift/instability/movement in TEMs/STEMs
Specimen drift/instability/movement in TEMs/STEMs		Contribution of specimen drift to diffractograms
Drift tube in GIF system		Spatial resolutions limited by specimen drifts
Spatial drift & its correction in EFTEM imagings		Drift & jump of EEL spectra or images
Degradation of EDS spatial resolution due to specimen drift		Degradation of EELS spatial resolution due to specimen drift
Corrections of spatial drift between successive acquisitions in 4D STEM measurements		EEL spectrum energy (and zero-loss) drifts/shifts

Driving force for the phase transition in materials		Drude-Lorentz model
Dual beam FIB/SEM		Dynamic characteristics of voltage contrast
ExSolve Wafer TEM Prep DualBeam
Dynamic range of camera		Dynamical effects of PED (precession electron diffraction)
Dynamical scattering of electrons in thick TEM specimen
Pendellösung/Pendellosung fringes in crystals		Dynamical theory for energetic electron-matter interaction
Dynamical extinction lines in CBED patterns
Double/multiple diffraction in electron diffraction patterns		Two-beam dynamical electron scattering/diffraction
Dwell times
Scan speed/dwell time of detectors and cameras in TEM/STEM imaging and elemental mapping